Clare Cook







Money under fire: The ethics of revenue generation for oppositional news outlets

This paper critically assesses the ethical challenges not-for-profit oppositional news outlets face when generating revenues. Both media in exile (out-of-country news outlets feeding independent information into the country of origin) and those in restrictive environments (in-country providing counter-information) often rely on media development funding to survive. Yet they are increasingly expected to diversify revenue as they wean themselves off grant dependency. As a result, tension arises between the necessities to generate revenues while continuing journalism in some of the most challenging environments globally. Building on empirical data, the author reflects on the ethical implications of three main revenue categories being used: grant funding, commercial revenues and donations. The paper finds oppositional news organisations are faced with a unique set of pragmatic challenges that prompts an ethical value set which oscillates between entrenched dependence on grant funding, commercial reluctance and commercial reconciliation

Keywords: exile, oppositional news, revenues, business, media development


References

  1. Alesina, Alberto and Dollar, David (2000) Who gives foreign aid to whom and why?, Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 5, No. 1 pp 33-63
  2. Barnett, Steven and Townend, Judith (2015) Media power and plurality: From hyperlocal to high-level policy, London, Palgrave Macmillan
  3. Batsell, Jake (2015) Engaged journalism: Connecting with digitally empowered news audiences, New York, Columbia University Press
  4. Beam, Randal (2003) Content differences between daily newspapers with strong and weak market orientations, Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, Vol. 80, No. 2 pp 368-390
  5. Becker, Jorg (2011) Coverage of the Tibet crisis and the Olympic Games in China in the German-language mass media, International Communication Gazette, Vol. 73 pp 495-506
  6. Becker, Lee and Vlad, Tudor (2009) Funding for freedom of expression organizations. Report of a Survey of IFEX Members. Available online at http://www.ifex.org/international/2009/07/08/cox_center_funding.pdf, accessed on 1 January 2016
  7. Becker, Lee, Hollifield, Ann, Jacobsson, Adam, Jacobsson, Eva-Maria, Vlad, Tudor (2009) Is more always better? Examining the adverse effects of competition on media performance, Journalism Studies, Vol. 10, No. 3 pp 368-385
  8. Berthelemy, Jean Claude (2006) Aid allocation: Competing donors' behaviours, Swedish Economic Policy Review, Vol. 13 pp 75-109
  9. Berger, Guy (2010) Problematizing 'media development' as a bandwagon gets rolling, International Communication Gazette, Vol. 72, No. 7 pp 547-565
  10. Bratic, Vladimir (2006) Media effects during violent conflict: Evaluating media contributions to peace building, Conflict and Communication Online, Vol. 4, No. 2. Available online at http://www.cco.regener-online.de/, accessed on 18 January 2016
  11. Brunetti, Aymo and Weder, Beatrice (2003) A free press is bad news for corruption, Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 87, No. 7 pp 1801-1824
  12. Cauhape-Cazaux, Eduardo and Kalathil, Shanthi (2015) Official development assistance for media: Figures and findings, CIMA. Available online at http://www.oecd.org/dac/governance-peace/publications/documentuploads/CIMA.pdf, accessed on 1 December 2015
  13. Cook, Clare (2016, forthcoming) Fragile finance: The revenue models of oppositional news outlets in repressive regimes, International Communication Gazette, Vol. 78, No. 6 pp 1-22
  14. Chowdhury, Shayamal (2004) Do democracy and press freedom reduce corruption? Evidence from a crosscountry study. ZEF. Available online at http://www.zef.de/uploads/tx_zefportal/Publications/zef_dp85.pdf, accessed on 1 December 2015
  15. CIMA (2007) Toward economic sustainability of the media in developing countries, CIMA. Available online at http://www.cima.ned.org/resource/toward-economic-sustainability-of-the-media-in-developing-countries/, accessed on 1 December 2015
  16. Deane, James (2013) Fragile states: The role of media and communication - policy briefing, BBC Media Action. Available online at http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/policybriefing/fragile_states_policy_briefing.pdf, accessed on 1 December 2015
  17. FOJO (2013) Independent media in exile: A baseline consultation, FOJO Media Institute. Available online at http://www.intermedia.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Fojo_Exile_Media_FINAL_PUBLISHED_REPORT_19-06-13.pdf, accessed on 1 December 2015
  18. Foster, Michelle (2012) Calling the shots: how ownership structures affect the independence of news media, CIMA. Available online at http://www.cima.ned.org/resource/calling-the-shots-how-ownership-structures-affect-the-independence-of-news-media-2/, accessed on 1 December 2015
  19. Foster, Michelle (2014) Measuring the audience: Why it matters to independent news media and how it can contribute to media development, CIMA. Available online at http://www.cima.ned.org/publication/measuring_the_audience__why_it_matters_to_independent_news_media_and_how_it_can_contribute_to_media_development/, accessed on 1 December 2015
  20. Fuchs Andreas, Nunnenkamp, Peter and Ohler, Hannes (2015) Why donors of foreign aid do not coordinate: The role of competition for export markets and political support, The World Economy, Vol. 38, No. 2 pp 255-285
  21. GFMD World Conference (2008) 10 December GFMD Constitution Athens. Available online at www.gfmd.info, accessed on 1 December 2015
  22. Harding, Phil (2015) Public service media in divided societies: Relic or renaissance? BBC Media Action. Available online at http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/pdf/policybriefing/psb-in-divided-societies-sept-2015.pdf, accessed on 1 December 2015
  23. Higgins, Daire (2014) The Western way? Democracy and the media assistance model, Global Media Journal, Vol. 4, No.2 pp 1-15
  24. Kaldor, Mary (2003) Civil society and accountability, Journal of Human Development, Vol. 4, No. 1 pp 5-27
  25. Karlekar, Karin and Becker, Lee (2014) By the numbers: tracing the statistical correlation between press freedom and democracy, CIMA. Available online at http://www.cima.ned.org/resource/by-the-numbers-tracing-the-statistical-correlation-between-press-freedom-and-democracy/, accessed on 1 December 2015
  26. LaMay, Craig (2006) Democratization and the dilemmas of media independence, The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law, Vol. 8, No. 4 pp 50-75
  27. LaMay, Craig (2007) Exporting press freedom: Economic and editorial dilemmas in international media assistance, New Brunswick, NJ, Transaction Publishers
  28. Loza, Tihomir (2015) Freedom from expression, RADAR. Available online at http://mediaobservatory.net/radar/freedom-expression, accessed on 1 December 2015
  29. Madon Shirin, Reinhard, Nicolau and Walsham, Geoff (2009) Digital inclusion projects in developing countries, Technology for Development, Vol. 15, No. 2 pp 95-107
  30. Martin, Hugh and Souder, Lawrence (2009) Interdependence in media economics: Ethical implications of the economic characteristics of news, Journal of Mass Media Ethics, Vol. 24, Nos 2-3 pp 127-145
  31. McManus, John (1992) Serving the public and serving the market: A conflict of interest?, Journal of Mass Media Ethics, Vol. 7, No. 4 pp 196-208
  32. Myers, Mary (2014) Africa's media boom: The role of international aid, CIMA, National Endowment for Democracy. Available online at http://www.cima.ned.org/resource/africas-media-boom-the-role-of-international-aid/, accessed on 1 December 2015
  33. Nelson, Anne (2011) Funding free expression: Perceptions and reality in a changing landscape, CIMA. Available online at http://www.cima.ned.org/resource/funding-free-expression-perceptions-and-reality-in-a-changing-landscape/, accessed on 1 December 2015
  34. Nolan, Kristin and Setrikian, Lara (2014) Seeking the single subject news model, Tow Center for Digital Journalism. Available online at http://towcenter.org/research/seeking-the-single-subject-news-model/, accessed on 1 December 2015
  35. Parsons, Paul, Landesberg, Richard and Scott, Glenn (2008) Barriers to media development, Beer A. S. de, Merrill, J. C. (eds) Global journalism: Topical issues and media systems, Boston, Pearson, fifth edition pp 48-64
  36. Peters, Bettina (2010) The future of journalism and challenges for media development: are we exporting a model that no longer works at home?, Journalism Practice, Vol. 4, No. 3 pp 268-273
  37. Podesta, Don (2009) Soft censorship: how governments around the world use money to manipulate the media, CIMA. Available online at http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/unpan/unpan041876.pdf, assessed on 1 December 2015
  38. Podesta, Don (2014) Business journalism thrives even under repressive regimes, Center for International Media Assistance. Available online at http://www.cima.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Business-Journalism-Thrives%E2%80%94Even-Under-Repressive-Regimes.pdf, assessed on 1 December 2015
  39. Pekkala, Pekka and Cook, Clare (2012) Sustaining journalistic entrepreneurship, Sirkkunen, E and Cook, Clare (eds) Chasing sustainability on the net, Tampere, Comet pp 108-115
  40. Requejo-Alemán, Jose and Lugo-Ocando, Jairo (2014) Assessing the sustainability of Latin American investigative non-profit journalism, Journalism Studies, Vol. 15 pp 522-532
  41. Robinson, JJ, Grennan, Kristen and Schiffrin, Anya (2015) Publishing for peanuts: Innovation and journalism start-up, Open Society Foundation. Available online at http://www.cima.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/PublishingforPeanuts.pdf, assessed on 1 December 2015
  42. Ronderos, Maria Teresa (2015) Funders' perspective: Maria Teresa Ronderos, director, Independent Journalism Programme of the Open Society Foundations. Available at http://gfmd.info/en/site/news/845/Funders-Perspective-Maria-Teresa-Ronderos-%E2%80%93-Director-Independent-Journalism-Programme-of-the-Open-Society-Foundations.htm, assessed on 1 December 2015
  43. Shrader, John (2011) Being ethical when it's bad for business, Journal of Mass Media Ethics Exploring, Vol. 26, No. 1 pp 71-74
  44. Sullivan, Drew (2013) Investigative journalism in emerging democracies: Models, challenges and lessons learned, CIMA. Available online at http://issuu.com/cima-publications/docs/investigative-reporting-emerging-democracies, assessed on 1 December 2015
  45. Sylvie, George and Witherspoon, Patricia (2002) Time, change, and the American newspaper, Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
  46. Wilson, Mark, Warnock, Kitty and Schoemaker, Emrys (2007) At the heart of change: The role of communication in sustainable development, Panos. Available online at http://panos.org.uk/wp-content/files/2011/01/heart_of_change_weby2wvJO.pdf, assessed on 1 December 2015

Note on the contributor

Clare Cook is a senior lecturer in print and online journalism at the Media Innovation Studio, the University of Central Lancashire's media research lab. She lectures in the UK and in Europe on social media and its impact on journalism, having co-authored Social media for journalists: Principles and practice (Sage). She has co-authored a range of works looking at the revenue models of journalism start-ups globally, hyperlocal media in Europe and oppositional news outlets in fragile states. She is also researching the impact of media technology in restricted environments.